India in 1750: Unraveling the Tapestry of Transition

The Later Mughals

1. Bahadur Shah (1707-1712):

• Successor to Aurangzeb, ascended the throne at 65.
• Attempted control over Amber and Marwar, ending up granting them high mansabs.
• Granted Marathas sardeshmukhi of Deccan, but not the chauth, leaving them dissatisfied.
• Crushed Sikh rebellion led by Banda Bahadur.

2. Jahandar Shah (1712-1713):

• Era of kingmakers began.
• Relied on Zulfiqar Khan for support, who assumed control of administration.
• Focused on friendly relations with Rajputs, Marathas, and local clans.
• Abolished jizyah, granted Marathas chauth and sardeshmukhi of Deccan.
• Introduction of irjarah or revenue farming.
• Defeated at Agra by nephew Farrukh Siyar.

3. Farukh Siyar and The Saiyyids (1713-1720):

• Saiyyid brothers, Hussain Ali Khan Barahow and Abdulla Khan, supported Farukh Siyar.
• Followed policies of religious tolerance, bringing Hindu chiefs into administration.
• Deceptive murder of the Saiyyid brothers by nobles in 1720.

4. Muhammad Shah (1719-1748):

• Reign marked by disarray and decline despite favorable conditions.
• Birth of new states as deputies of emperors created independent territories.

Successor States

1. Hyderabad:

• Founded by Nizam-ul-mulk Asaf Jhah in 1724.
• Strengthened control over Deccan, pursuing a policy of religious tolerance.

2. Bengal:

• Founded by Murshid Khuli Khan and Alivardi Khan.
• Land categorization and introduction of khalisah lands during MKK's rule.
• Agricultural loans (taccavis) to farmers.

3. Awadh:

• Founded by Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-mulk, virtually independent by 1739.
• Revenue settlement in 1723, continuation of the jagir system.
• Saadat Khan followed by his nephew Safdar Jung.

4. Mysore:

• Ruled by Hyder Ali, a visionary leader.
• Recognized the importance of western military equipment.
• Tolerant ruler, succeeded by his son Tipu.
• Tipu recognized the threat posed by the British, incorporated western weapons, and had a modern navy.

Economic Condition in the 1750s

• Mughal India: 25% of the world GDP and population.
• Per capita GDP half of Britain's in 1600.
• Exploitative land revenue system, elite class holding a significant share of national income.
• Lack of scientific or technological research, machinery, and mechanical tools.
• Dependence on textile exports, unable to compete with cheaper European cloth.